In 2019, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Chinese President Xi Jinping met for a summit in the ancient town of Mammallapuram, now known as Mahabalipuram. The Tamil town, located almost 2000 kilometers away from the Indian national capital of Delhi, which typically is the hotspot for high-profile diplomatic meetings might seem like a bizarre choice for such a meeting to those who do not know the rich history the town holds. Mamallapuram thrived as a bustling port until the late 9th century, serving as a crucial stop along the ancient Silk Route for China and the Spices Route for India. This coastal town serves as a reminder of the historical Tamil presence along Chinese shores, particularly in Quanzhou, where Tamil traders established communities, built temples, and left behind inscriptions that continue to intrigue scholars today. 

The history of Tamil traders in China was largely shaped by royal patronage and state-driven initiatives, yet it continues to thrive today through a reinvention of cultural exchanges that extend beyond state influence. This article examines how various Tamil dynasties, through trade and religious networks, played a pivotal role in shaping cultural interactions in Quanzhou and beyond. Simultaneously, it also explores how this legacy is being revived and reimagined in the contemporary period, through Tamil professional networks and cultural organizations in China, and also through Chinese engagement with Tamil culture and society, which are driving people-to-people interactions that influence state-led initiatives.

Early Trade Networks

By the first century CE, established trade routes linked the Tamil regions with China. The Tamils, known for their seafaring prowess, engaged in commerce through the ports of South India, such as Kaveripattinam and Mamallapuram, exchanging spices, textiles, and gemstones for Chinese silk and ceramics. The arrival of Buddhism in China by the second century further facilitated this exchange, strengthening religious and cultural interactions.

By the twelfth century, Quanzhou had become a melting pot of foreign communities, including Srivijayans and Tamils, who often maintained distinct identities while practising voluntary self-segregation. The earliest available Chinese references to Tamil lands date back to the Han dynasty (206 BCE–23 CE), with the Hanshu (The History of the Han Dynasty) mentioning “Huang Zhi Guo,” which some scholars believe refers to Kanchipuram.

The medieval period saw the Chola Empire extending its influence across Southeast Asia and China. Under Rajendra Chola I (r. 1014–1044 CE), the Cholas not only engaged in trade but also undertook strategic military actions to secure direct access to Chinese markets. In 1025 CE, Rajendra Chola launched a successful naval raid against the Srivijaya Empire with the strategic aim of controlling the Strait of Melaka (English: Malacca Strait), the critical maritime passage between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. This military campaign set the stage for a flourishing of direct trade relations between Tamil Nadu and China, bypassing intermediary states and increasing economic exchanges. Today, the Malacca Strait linking the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, serves as one of the world’s busiest shipping lanes, facilitating India’s trade with Southeast Asia, while also serving as a key route for China’s energy imports and exports. An estimated 23.7 million barrels of petroleum and other fuels transit through the strait daily. 

Chinese sources contain abundant references to Tamil-Chinese interactions, many of which have been extensively studied and translated by scholars like Tansen Sen and Noboru Karashima. Several significant Chinese texts document the Chola Kingdom’s relationship with China, including Songhuiyao (Important Documents of the Song Dynasty) and Zhufan Zhi (Records of the Barbarous Nations). A key moment in this exchange occurred under Emperor Kulottunga I (r. 1070–1122 CE), known for his diplomatic acumen. In 1079 CE, he made a substantial donation of 600,000 gold pieces to a Taoist monastery in Guangzhou, demonstrating the Chola Empire’s interest in promoting goodwill and securing its maritime trade connections with China. During the Yuan (1271–1368) and Ming (1368–1644) dynasties, Tamil traders continued to play an essential role in the India-China trade network. The Ming emperor Yongle (r. 1402–1424) dispatched Admiral Zheng He on expeditions that included visits to South Indian ports such as Calicut, further strengthening these economic ties. During his 1409-1411 voyage, he installed a trilingual inscription in Galle. The Chinese text mentions his offering to Sri Pada (Buddha), the Tamil text honors Tenavarai Nayanar (dedicated to Lord Vishnu), and the Persian script refers to his offering to Allah.

Tamil Merchants and Religious Legacies in Quanzhou

Quanzhou, in Fujian, is perhaps the only city in China with  evidence of the trade and cultural links that existed between southern India and China. A bilingual Tamil-Chinese inscription from 1281 CE in Quanzhou, along with other historical records, highlight the significant trade that took place between Tamil Nadu and China. Tamil traders, particularly the influential Ainnurruvar guild (Guild of the 500), established religious sites in the region, reinforcing their enduring mercantile traditions. Among these, temples dedicated to Ainurruvar Nayanar stand as testament to the presence of Tamil traders in Quanzhou.

Bilingual Tamil-Chinese Inscription, c. 1281

Source:  Constructing Community: Tamil Merchant Temples in India and China, 850-1281

One such temple, the Chedian shrine in Quanzhou, dedicated to the Bodhisattva Guanyin, reflects the fusion of Tamil Hinduism and Chinese Buddhism. Similarly, Tamil merchants played a role in modifying Quanzhou’s Kaiyuan Temple around 1283 CE, incorporating Hindu motifs into its structure. The presence of Shaivite and Vaishnavite iconography in these temples demonstrates the integration of South Indian religious traditions within Chinese architectural spaces. A particularly significant artefact, the Quanzhou inscription is dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva. Carved from granite, the relic portrays an elephant placing a lotus on a Shiva linga beneath a flowering tree, visually narrating the legend of the Chola king Kochchenganan. As recounted in the Periyapuranam, Kochchenganan, in a previous life as a spider, wove webs to protect a Shiva linga, while a devoted elephant ritually cleansed it with water. Their conflict led to mutual destruction, but Shiva honoured their devotion by granting them rebirth.

The 1281 CE inscription reads:

Tamil: “Obeisance to Hara (Siva)! Let there be prosperity! On the day Citra in the month of Chittira in the Saka year 1203 (1281 A.D.), the Tavachchakkarvarttigal Sambandhap-perumal (a Saiva religious leader) caused, in accordance with the firman (written permission) of Chekachai Khan (the Mongol ruler), to be graciously installed the God Udaiyar Tirukkadalisvaram Udaiya-nayinar (Siva), for the welfare of the illustrious body of the illustrious Chekachai Khan”.

Tamil Stele Unearthed in Quanzhou

Source: Quanzhou Maritime Museum

A similar relic can be found in the Jambukesvarar temple at Tiruvanaikka, a town in Trichy, while Kochchenganan imagery remains rare outside Tamil Nadu. The Quanzhou sculpture, although more concise in its depiction, retains essential symbols. Notably, its artistic elements, such as the angular folds of the elephant’s ears and cloud-like motifs, suggest Chinese stylistic influences. This relic shows the far-reaching cultural networks of Tamil merchants and challenges the notion that Tamil artistic traditions were shaped solely by royal patronage. While South Indian temple architecture is often associated with the grandeur of dynastic rule, the Tamil merchant guilds operating along the maritime Silk Route were active agents of cultural production, at times, also independent of direct state sponsorship. In Quanzhou, inscriptions, temple relics, and iconographic elements bear testimony to the agency of these merchant communities in shaping religious and artistic expressions outside the framework of courtly influence.

The inscription also coincides with a pivotal moment in Quanzhou’s history. The Yuan dynasty established a maritime trade bureau in the port city in 1278, facilitating extensive overseas commerce. In early 1281, an envoy was dispatched to India, signalling the peak of South Indian trade in Quanzhou. Marco Polo later observed the continued presence of Indian traders in Quanzhou in the late 1280s and early 1290s. However, after 1284, Yuan policies progressively restricted foreign trade, leading to a decline in Tamil merchant activity. Now primarily housed in the Quanzhou Maritime Museum, the Shiva temple’s sculptural fragments have also been repurposed within Quanzhou’s oldest Buddhist temple. Although no medieval records explicitly confirm Tamil-speaking merchants as the temple’s builders, substantial secondary evidence supports their involvement. This includes the bilingual Tamil-Chinese inscription, the accounts of travellers such as Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta, and extensive material evidence of South Indian and Southeast Asian trade networks.

The Shiva temple referenced in the inscription was likely built during this brief period of relatively unencumbered trade, between the establishment of the Yuan Trade Bureau in 1278 and the imposition of stricter trade regulations in the mid-1280s. The Tamil merchants, aware of the political landscape, dedicated their temples to the well-being of the emperor, ensuring imperial favour while maintaining amicable relations with local bureaucrats. 

Tirumular panel from Quanzhou

Source:  Constructing Community: Tamil Merchant Temples in India and China, 850-1281

The Shiva temple’s sculptural elements are scattered across multiple sites in Quanzhou and its vicinity, primarily carved from greenish-grey granite. The largest collection resides in Kaiyuan Temple, where 153 carvings, likely repurposed from an Indic temple, are embedded in the plinth and displayed in the site museum. The Quanzhou Maritime Museum houses 117 architectural pieces, including pillars, cornices, and a Vishnu statue, many of which were collected by Wu Wenliang in the 1950s. The Tianhou Gong Temple features two Indic-style columns, while the Xingji Pavilion in Jinjiang contains a sculptural panel of Kali, now venerated as Guanyin. 

Legacy and Contemporary Connections

The legacy of Tamil traders in China extends beyond Quanzhou and the medieval period, into the present. While the merchant guilds and temple-building activities of the past may have faded, Tamil communities in China continue to maintain cultural and economic ties. During the mid-20th century, Tamils from Burma (now Myanmar) migrated to Hong Kong, seeking new opportunities amid political instability. This wave of migration led to the establishment of the Tamil Cultural Association in Hong Kong in 1967, which continues to be a focal point for Tamil heritage in the region.

In mainland China, Tamil professionals have formed new networks to sustain their linguistic and cultural identity. The Beijing Tamil Sangamam, founded in 2013, marked the first organized Tamil association in China, followed by the Guangdong Tamil Sangam in Guangzhou. These associations reflect the ongoing connections between Tamil Nadu and China, demonstrating that the historical ties forged through trade, religion, and diplomacy continue to reinvent themselves, taking on new forms. Professionals in China also contribute to cultural relations between Tamil Nadu and China, driving forward the reinvention of the contemporary connections. For instance, Chinese women working for the South Asia division of the China Media Group in Beijing have travelled extensively to Tamil Nadu, developing an attachment to the Tamil language and the region's literature. This engagement has further been amplified through Tamil-language broadcasts of the China Media Group, which promote Tamil literature, music, and heritage across the country. They also actively participate in cultural activities organised by the Beijing Tamil Sangam for Tamil New Year celebrations. 

The Tamil presence in China which was once defined by merchant guilds and temple inscriptions now thrives in the form of professional networks and cultural organizations, ensuring that this long history of engagement remains alive in the modern era. These contemporary people-to-people interactions are not only sustaining Tamil cultural traditions but are also beginning to influence state-level engagements, demonstrating how transnational cultural ties continue to shape diplomatic and economic relationships between India and China. 

Representations and revivals of the mercantile culture and history of Tamils in Quanzhou have also been acknowledged by top leaders in China like Xi Jinping, who as the governor of Fujian from 2000 to 2002, visited the maritime museum in Quanzhou, which houses relics and artifacts, several times. More recently, the former Chinese Ambassador to India, Sun Weidong, visited Chennai and Puducherry in 2022 to build up cultural and people-to-people ties with Tamil business communities and civil society groups. Leveraging the historical relationship between Tamil Nadu and China, the Ambassador engaged with members of the India-China Friendship Association, visited the BYD Auto facility and planted a “friendship tree” at the SriPerumbudur Industrial Park. China’s foreign policy and public diplomacy strategy has increasingly focused on enhancing relations with Indian states like Tamil Nadu, by rejuvenating and reviving historical and cultural linkages.

Xi Jinping at the Quanzhou Maritime History Museum in April 2001

Source: Fujian Provincial Bureau of Cultural Heritage

The trajectory of Tamil presence in China, thus reflects a broader historical pattern of diasporic adaptation, shifting from religious and trade interactions to cultural and professional networks driven by people-to-people ties. Over time, as imperial and colonial shifts redefined trade and mobility, the Tamil presence in China transformed, adapting to changing political and economic conditions. The Tamil story in China, therefore, is not just one of continuity but also of reinvention, shaped by forces of history, yet persistently finding new spaces for expression and influence.